Deve lopment of Inhibition Control in Children during the Transition from Kindergarten to School during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Longitudinal Study

Background. The COVID-19 pandemic is a unique situation in the global community which emerged for the first time. Research shows that the pandemic may have a long-term effect on children’s development. Inhibition control is one of the main components of executive functioning and a predictor to a child’s further academic success. However, there are few works devoted to the study of the impact of the pandemic on inhibition control in preschoolers.

The objective of the study was to identify dynamics of the development of inhibition control in children aged 5–8 years (from senior preschool to primary school age) during the COVID-19 pandemic. Indicators of the development of inhibition control in first-graders before and during the pandemic were compared.

Methods. Inhibition control was assessed three times (at 5, 6, and then at 7 years of age) with the NEPSY-II Inhibition subtest.

Sample. This longitudinal study involved children aged 5 to 8 years at the time of follow-up from 2019 to 2021 (N=101). Additionally, the sample included first-grade children who were trained in kindergarten and first grade before the pandemic (March 2019, N=84).

Results. The results of the analysis indicate that inhibition control successfully developed in children from the senior kindergarten group to the first grade of school during the pandemic. At the same time, the level of development of inhibition control in girls after the pandemic is higher than in girls before the pandemic, while no significant differences were found for boys.

Conclusion. The level of inhibitory control in preschoolers, whose education in the preparatory group of the kindergarten took place during the COVID-19 pandemic, despite the restrictions introduced and changes in the usual way of life, corresponds to the norms. It has been shown that the results of the development of inhibitory control in children who were caught up in the pandemic and those who were not caught up in the pandemic differ depending on gender.

References

Abufhele, A., Bravo, D., López, B.F., Soto-Ramirez P. (2022). Developmental Losses in Young Children from Pre-primary Program Closures during the COVID-19 Pandemic. IZA Discussion Papers. Institute of Labor Economics (IZA). http://dx.doi.org/10.18235/0003920

Almazova, O.V., Bukhalenkova, D.A., Veraksa, A.N. (2016). The voluntariness in the preschool age:ca comparative analysis of various approaches and diagnostic tools. National Psychological Journal, 4, 24. 14–22. (In Russ.).

Almazova, O.V., Bukhalenkova, D.A., Veraks a, A.N. (2019). Assessment of the Level of Development of Executive Functions in the Senior Preschool Age. Psychology. Journal of the Higher School of Economics, 16, 2, 94–109. (In Russ.).

Bates, L.C., Zieff, G., Stanford, K., Moore, J.B., Kerr, Z.Y., Hanson, E.D., Gibbs, B.B., Kline, C.E., Stoner, L. (2020). Covid-19 impact on behaviors across the 24-hour day in children and adolescents: Physical activity, sedentary behavior, and sleep. Children (Basel), 7 (9). https://doi.org/10.3390/children7090138

Beaugrand, M., Muehlematter, C., Markovic, A., Camos, V., Kurth, S. (2023). Sleep as a protective factor of children’s executive functions: A study during COVID-19 confinement. PLoS ONE, 18 (1). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279034

Brophy, M., Taylor, Er., Hughes, Cl. (2002). To go or not to go: Inhibitory control in ‘hard to manage’ children. Infant and Child Development, 11, 125–140. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.301-x

Carlson, S.M., Wang T.S. (2007). Inhibitory control and emotion regulation in preschool children. Cognitive Development, 22 (4), 489–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. cogdev.2007.08.002

Clarke, J., Kipping, R., Chambers, S., Willis, K., Taylor, H., Brophy, R., Hannam, K., Simpson, S.A., Langford, R. (2021). Impact of COVID-19 restrictions on preschool children’s eating, activity and sleep behaviours: a qualitative study. BMJ Open, 11 (10). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-051497

Conger, R.D., Donnellan, M.B. (2007). An Interactionist Perspective on the Socioeconomic Context of Human Development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 175–199. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085551

Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–68. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750

Elkonin, D.B. (1978). Psychology of a Game. M.: Pedagogika (In Russ.).

Gandolfi, E., Traverso, L., Zanobini, M., Usai, M.C., Viterbori, P. (2021). The longitudinal relationship between early inhibitory control skills and emergent literacy in preschool children. Reading and Writing, 34, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-021-10131-y

Ghosh, R., Dubey, M.J., Chatterjee, S., Dubey, S. (2020). Impact of COVID -19 on children: special focus on the psychosocial aspect. Minerva Pediatrica, 72 (3), 226–235. https://doi.org/10.23736/s0026-4946.20.05887-9

Gnedykh, D.S., Tikhomirova, M.А., Iakovleva, M.V. (2022). Psychological determinants of adaptability at the university in first-year students of the Faculty of Medicine during the COVID-19 pandemic. Russian Psychological Journal, 19 (3), 95–107. https://doi.org/10.21702/rpj.2022.3.6 (In Russ.).

Ierusalimova, M.V., Kalinina, T.V., Kazakova, O.A., Ivanova, L.A. (2020). Organization of independent motor activity of preschool children during the pandemic. Scientific Notes from Lesgaft University, 11 (189). (In Russ.).

Imran, N., Zeshan, M., Pervaiz, Z. (2020). Mental health considerations for children & adolescents in COVID-19 Pandemic. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 36 (4), 67–72. https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.36.COVID19-S4.2759

Karpova, E.B., Nikolaeva, E. A. (2020). Negative psycho-emotional consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic in risk groups. National Psychological Journal, 3 (39). 66–74. (In Russ.).

Khoroshilov, D.A., Gromova, O.A. (2021). Perception of pandemic and vaccination in the period of COVID-19 “second wave” (on the basis of in-depth interviews). National Psychological Journal, 2 (42), 3–10. https://doi.org/10.11621/npj.2021.0201(In Russ.).

Kondratyuk, N.G., Tsyganov, I.Y., Kolesnikova, I.M., Morosanova, V.I. (2021). Regulatory Resources and Person’s Life Plans under Uncertainty Conditions during COVID-19 Lockdown in Russia. RUDN Journal of Psychology and Pedagogics, 18 (1), 7–24. https://doi.org/10.22363/2313-1683-2021-18-1-7-24 (In Russ.).

Korkman, M., Kirk, U., Kemp, S.L. (2007). NEPSY II. Administrative manual. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.

Kucirkova, N., Littleton, K., Kyparissiadis, A. (2017). The influence of children’s gender and age on children’s use of digital media at home. British Journal of Educational Technology. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12543

Lavigne-Cerván, R., Costa-López, B., Juárez-Ruiz, de M.R., Real-Fernández, M., Sánchez-Muñoz, de L.M., Navarro-Soria, I. (2021). Consequences of COVID-19 Confinement on Anxiety, Sleep and Executive Functions of Children and Adolescents in Spain. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.565516

Lynch, K., Lee, M., Loeb, S. (2023). An investigation of Head Start preschool children’s executive function, early literacy, and numeracy learning in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 64, 255–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2023.04.002

Major, S. de O., Ana, C.P., Osvaldo, S. (2023). Attending (or not) after-school programs during the COVID-19 pandemic: What happens to children’s social skills and behavior problems? Children and Youth Services Review, 149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2023.106929

Medrano, M., Cadenas-Sanchez, C., Oses, M., Arenaza, L., Amasene, M., Labayen, I. (2021). Changes in lifestyle behaviours during the COVID-19 confinement in Spanish children: A longitudinal analysis from the MUGI project. Pediatric Obesity, 16 (4), https://doi.org/10.1111/ijpo.12731

Mesce, M., Ragona, A., Cimino, S., Cerniglia, L. (2022). The impact of media on children during the COVID-19 pandemic: A narrative review. Heliyon, 8 (12). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e12489

Miyake, A., Friedman, N.P., Emerson, M.J., Witzki, A.H., Howerter, A. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006 cogp.1999.0734

Mochida, S., Sanadaa, M., Shaoa, Q., Leea, J., Takaokaa J., Ando, S., Sakakihara, Y. (2021). Factors modifying children’s stress during the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 29 (1), 51–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2021.1872669

Moore, S.A., Faulkner, G., Rhodes, R.E., Brussoni, M., Chulak-Bozzer, T., Ferguson, L.J., Mitra, R., O’Reilly, N., Spence, J.C., Vanderloo, L.M. (2020). Impact of the COVID-19 virus outbreak on movement and play behaviours of Canadian children and youth: A national survey. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 17 (1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-020-00987-8

Morgan, P., Hillemeier, M., Pun, W. H., Maczuga, S. (2018). Kindergarten Children’s Executive Functions Predict Their Second‐Grade Academic Achievement and Behavior. Child Development, 90. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13095

Navarro-Soria, I., Costa-López, B., Collado-Valero, J.A., Juárez-Ruiz, R., LavigneCervan, R. (2023). Anxiety, sleep habits and executive function during the COVID-19 pandemic through parents’ perception: a longitudinal study. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica, 36, 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-023-00251-5

Perrigo, J.L., Samek, A., Hurlburt, M. (2022). Minority and low-SES families’ experiences during the early phases of the COVID-19 pandemic crisis: A qualitative study. Children and Youth Services Review, 140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2022.106594

Pervichko. E.I., Mitina, O.V., Stepanova, O.B., Konyukhovskaya, Yu.E., Shishkova, I.M., Dorokhov, E.A. (2022). Perceptions of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Psychological Distress amongst Russian Citizens during Spring 2020. Consortium Psychiatricum, 3 (2), 70–86. https://doi.org/10.17816/CP136

Rakickienė, L., Jusienė, R., Baukienė, E., Breidokienė, R. (2021). Pre-schoolers’ behavioural and emotional problems during the first quarantine due to COVID-19 pandemic: The role of parental distress and screen time. Psichologija, 64, 61–68. https://doi.org/10.15388/Psichol.2021.41

Rhoades, B.L., Greenberg, M.T., Domitrovich, C.E. (2009). The contribution of inhibitory control to preschoolers’ social–emotional competence. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30 (3), 310–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2008.12.012

Samokhvalova, A.G., Saporovskaia, M.V., Khazova, S.A., Tikhomirova, E.V., Shipova, N.S. (2022). Coping with the forced separation of close relationships during the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychology in Russia: State of the Art, 15 (3), 75–90. https://doi.org/10.11621/pir.2022.0305

Shaligram, D. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 on sibling relationships. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 60 (10). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jaac.2021.07.018

Shen, K., Yang, Y., Wang, T., Zhao, D., Jiang, Y., Jin, R., Zheng, Y., Xu, B., Xie, Z., Lin, L., Shang, Y., Lu, X., Shu, S., Bai, Y., Deng, J., Lu, M., Ye, L., Wang, X., Wang, Y., Gao, L. (2020). Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of 2019 novel coronavirus infectionin children: experts’ consensus statement. World Journal of Pediatric, 16 (3), 223–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12519-020-00343-7

Smirnova, E.O., Gudareva, O.V. (2004). The game and the arbitrariness of modern preschoolers. Issues in Psychology, 1, 91–103. (In Russ.).

Solodovnik, E.M., Abramova, E.D. (2021). Motor activity of preschool children during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Humanities and Natural Sciences, 1, 171–174. (In Russ.).

Sowmya A.S.L., Manjuvani E. (2019). Usage of electronic gadgets among preschool children. International Journal of Home Science, 5 (2), 1–5.

Spiegel, J.A., Goodrich, J.M., Morris, B.M., Osborne, C.M., Lonigan, C.J. (2021). Relations between executive functions and academic outcomes in elementary school children: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 147 (4), 329–351. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000322

Spinelli, M., Lionetti, F., Pastore, M., Fasolo, M. (2020). Parents’ Stress and Children’s Psychological Problems in Families Facing the COVID-19 Outbreak in Italy. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01713

Stockwell, S., Trott, M., Tully, M., Shin, J., Barnett, Y., Butler, L., McDermott, D., Schuch, F., Smith L. (2021). Changes in physical activity and sedentary behaviours from before to during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown: A systematic review. BMJ Open Sport and Exercise Medicine, 7 (1). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2020-000960

Tabullo, A., Canet Juric, L., Abusamra, V. (2022). Executive function difficulties among school-aged children during the COVID-19 pandemic: associations with home literacy environment, reading and screen media times. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1784639/v1

Tsukerman, G.A., Polivanova. K.N. (1992). Introduction to school life. Tomsk: Peleng, 1992. (In Russ.).

Tvardovskaya, A.A., Gabdulkhakov, V.F., Novik, N.N., Garifullina, A.M. (2020). Impact of physical activity of preschool children on the development of executive functions: theoretical review of studies. Moscow University Psychology Bulletin, 3, 214–238. https://doi.org/10.11621/vsp.2020.03.10 (In Russ.).

Valeeva, R., Kalimullin, A. (2021). Adapting or changing: The covid-19 pandemic and teacher education in Russia. Education Sciences, 11 (8), 408.

Veraksa, A, Bukhalenkova, D., Almazova, O. (2020). Executive Functions and Quality of Classroom Interactions in Kindergarten Among 5–6-Year-Old Children. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.603776

Veraksa, A.N. , Almazova, O.V., Bukhalenkova, D.A. (2020). Executive functions assessment in senior preschool age: a battery of methods. Psychological Journal, 41, 6, 108–118. (In Russ.).

Veraksa, A., Gavrilova, M.N., Bukhalenkova, D.A., Yakupova, V.A. (2020). The Relationship between Play Repertoire and Inhibitory Control in Preschool Children. European Journal of Contemporary Education, 9 (2), 443–450.

Veraksa, A., Tvardovskaya, A., Gavrilova, M., Yakupova, V., Musalek, M. (2021). Associations Between Executive Functions and Physical Fitness in Preschool Children. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.674746

Veraksa, A.N., Belolutskaya, A.K., Gavrilova, M.N., Leonov, S.V. (2020). Сonnection of executive functions and physical fitness in preschool children: review of studies. Issues in Psychology, 2, 1–16. (In Russ.).

Veraksa, A.N., Chichinina, E.A. (2022). Comparison of digital device usage by preschool children before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Modern Preschool Education, 2 (110), 30–39. https://doi.org/10.24412/1997-9657-2022-2110-30-39 (In Russ.).

Veraksa, A.N., Kornienko, D.S., Chichinina, E.A., Bukhalenkova, D.A., Chursina, A.V. (2021). Correlations between Preschoolers’ Screen Time with Gender, Age and Socio-Veraksa, N.E., Veraksa, A.N., Bukhalenkova, D.A., Säljö, R. (2021). Exploring the development of executive functions in children in a digital world. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 37 (7). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-021-00584

Veraksa, N.E., Bukhalenkova, D.A., Veraksa, A.N., Chichinina, E.A. (2022). Relationship between the use of digital devices and executive functions development in preschool children. Psychological Journal, 43, 1, 51–59. (In Russ.).

Vygotsky, L.S. (1966). Play and its role in the mental development of the child. Issues in Psychology, 6, 62–76. (In Russ.).

Willoughby, M.T., Kupersmidt, J.B, Voegler-Lee, M.E. (2012). Is preschool executive function causally related to academic achievement? Child Neuropsychology: A Journal on Normal and Abnormal Development in Childhood and Adolescence, 18 (1), 79–91.

Xing, X., Liu, X., Wang, M. (2019). Parental warmth and harsh discipline as mediators of the relations between family SES and Chinese preschooler’s inhibitory control. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 48, 237–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.12.018

Ya-Yun, C., Hyungwook, Y., Tae-Ho, L. (2023). Negative impact of daily screen use on inhibitory control network in preadolescence: A two-year follow-up study. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2023.101218